Relative pronouns

> Relative pronouns merupakan kata ganti yang menunjuk pada kata benda yang mendahuluinya (antecedent) yang berfungsi sebagai penghubung dalam kalimat. Kata ganti yang digunakan adalah: who, whom, whose, which, dan that. Relative pronouns biasa diletakkan di awal subordinate clause atau anak kalimat yang menunjukkan relasi terhadap keseluruhan kalimat. Lihatlah contoh-contoh ini menunjukkan Relative Clauses terdefinisi dan tidak terdefinisi: example sentences S=subject, O=object, P=possessive notes defining S - The person who phoned me last night is my teacher. - The person that phoned me last night is my teacher. That is preferable - The car which hit me was yellow. - The cars that hit me were yellow. That is preferable O - The person whom I phoned last night is my teacher. - The people who I phoned last night are my teachers. - The person that I phoned last night is my teacher. - The person I phoned last night is my teacher. Whom is correct but very formal. The relative pronoun is optional. - The car which I drive is old. - The car that I drive is old. - The car I drive is old. That is preferable to which. The relative pronoun is optional. P - The student whose phone just rang should stand up. - Students whose parents are wealthy pay extra. - The police are looking for the car whose driver was masked. - The police are looking for the car of which the driver was masked. Of which is usual for things, butwhose is sometimes possible non-defining S - Mrs Pratt, who is very kind, is my teacher. - The car, which was a taxi, exploded. - The cars, which were taxis, exploded. O - Mrs Pratt, whom I like very much, is my teacher. - Mr and Mrs Pratt, who I like very much, are my teachers. Whom is correct but very formal.Who is normal. - The car, which I was driving at the time, suddenly caught fire. P - My brother, whose phone you just heard, is a doctor. - The car, whose driver jumped out just before the accident, was completely destroyed. - The car, the driver of which jumped out just before the accident, was completely destroyed. Of which is usual for things, butwhose is sometimes possible * Tidak semua sumber tata bahasa menghitung "bahwa" sebagai kata ganti relatif. ** Beberapa orang mengklaim bahwa kita tidak dapat menggunakan "bahwa" bagi orang-orang tetapi harus menggunakan "siapa / siapa", tidak ada alasan yang baik untuk klaim seperti itu.

Comparison of adjectives

> A - Comparison with -er/-est clean - cleaner - (the) cleanest We use -er/-est with the following adjectives: 1) adjectives with one syllable clean cleaner cleanest new newer newest cheap cheaper cheapest 2) adjectives with two syllables and the following endings: 2 - 1) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -y dirty dirtier dirtiest easy easier easiest happy happier happiest pretty prettier prettiest 2 - 2) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -er clever cleverer cleverest 2 - 3) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -le simple simpler simplest 2 - 4) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -ow narrow narrower narrowest Spelling of the adjectives using the endings -er/-est large larger largest leave out the silent -e big bigger biggest Double the consonant after short vowel sad sadder saddest dirty dirtier dirtiest Change -y to -i (consonant before -y) shy shyer shyest Here -y is not changed to -i.(although consonant before -y) B - Comparison with more - most difficult - more difficult - (the) most difficult all adjectives with more than one syllable (except some adjectives with two syllables - see 2 - 1 to 2 - 4) C - Irregular adjectives good better best bad worse worst much more most uncountable nouns many more most countable nouns little less least little smaller smallest D - Special adjectives Some ajdectives have two possible forms of comparison. common commoner / more common commonest / most common likely likelier / more likely likeliest / most likely pleasant pleasanter / more pleasant pleasantest / most pleasant polite politer / more polite politest / most polite simple simpler / more simple simplest / most simple stupid stupider / more stupid stupidest / most stupid subtle subtler / more subtle subtlest sure surer / more sure surest / most sure Difference in meaning with adjectives: far farther farthest distance further furthest distance or time late later latest latter x x last old older oldest people and things elder eldest people (family) near nearer nearest distance x next order

Passive Voice

> Verbs are also said to be either active (The executive committee approved the new policy) or passive (The new policy was approved by the executive committee) in voice. In the active voice, the subject and verb relationship is straightforward: the subject is a be-er or a do-er and the verb moves the sentence along. In the passive voice, the subject of the sentence is neither a do-er or a be-er, but is acted upon by some other agent or by something unnamed (The new policy was approved). Computerized grammar checkers can pick out a passive voice construction from miles away and ask you to revise it to a more active construction. There is nothing inherently wrong with the passive voice, but if you can say the same thing in the active mode, do so (see exceptions below). Your text will have more pizzazz as a result, since passive verb constructions tend to lie about in their pajamas and avoid actual work. We find an overabundance of the passive voice in sentences created by self-protective business interests, magniloquent educators, and bombastic military writers (who must get weary of this accusation), who use the passive voice to avoid responsibility for actions taken. Thus "Cigarette ads were designed to appeal especially to children" places the burden on the ads — as opposed to "We designed the cigarette ads to appeal especially to children," in which "we" accepts responsibility. At a White House press briefing we might hear that "The President was advised that certain members of Congress were being audited" rather than "The Head of the Internal Revenue service advised the President that her agency was auditing certain members of Congress" because the passive construction avoids responsibility for advising and for auditing. One further caution about the passive voice: we should not mix active and passive constructions in the same sentence: "The executive committee approved the new policy, and the calendar for next year's meetings was revised" should be recast as "The executive committee approved the new policy and revised the calendar for next year's meeting." Take the quiz (below) as an exercise in recognizing and changing passive verbs. The passive voice does exist for a reason, however, and its presence is not always to be despised. The passive is particularly useful (even recommended) in two situations: When it is more important to draw our attention to the person or thing acted upon: The unidentified victim was apparently struck during the early morning hours. When the actor in the situation is not important: The aurora borealis can be observed in the early morning hours. The passive voice is especially helpful (and even regarded as mandatory) in scientific or technical writing or lab reports, where the actor is not really important but the process or principle being described is of ultimate importance. Instead of writing "I poured 20 cc of acid into the beaker," we would write "Twenty cc of acid is/was poured into the beaker." The passive voice is also useful when describing, say, a mechanical process in which the details of process are much more important than anyone's taking responsibility for the action: "The first coat of primer paint is applied immediately after the acid rinse." We use the passive voice to good effect in a paragraph in which we wish to shift emphasis from what was the object in a first sentence to what becomes the subject in subsequent sentences. The executive committee approved an entirely new policy for dealing with academic suspension and withdrawal. The policy had been written by a subcommittee on student behavior. If students withdraw from course work before suspension can take effect, the policy states, a mark of "IW" . . . . The paragraph is clearly about this new policy so it is appropriate that policy move from being the object in the first sentence to being the subject of the second sentence. The passive voice allows for this transition.† Passive Verb Formation The passive forms of a verb are created by combining a form of the "to be verb" with the past participle of the main verb. Other helping verbs are also sometimes present: "The measure could have been killed in committee." The passive can be used, also, in various tenses. Let's take a look at the passive forms of "design." Tense Subject Auxiliary Past Participle Singular Plural Present The car/cars is are designed. Present perfect The car/cars has been have been designed. Past The car/cars was were designed. Past perfect The car/cars had been had been designed. Future The car/cars will be will be designed. Future perfect The car/cars will have been will have been designed. Present progressive The car/cars is being are being designed. Past progressive The car/cars was being were being designed. A sentence cast in the passive voice will not always include an agent of the action. For instance if a gorilla crushes a tin can, we could say "The tin can was crushed by the gorilla." But a perfectly good sentence would leave out the gorilla: "The tin can was crushed." Also, when an active sentence with an indirect object is recast in the passive, the indirect object can take on the role of subject in the passive sentence: Active Professor Villa gave Jorge an A. Passive An A was given to Jorge by Professor Villa. Passive Jorge was given an A. Only transitive verbs (those that take objects) can be transformed into passive constructions. Furthermore, active sentences containing certain verbs cannot be transformed into passive structures. To have is the most important of these verbs. We can say "He has a new car," but we cannot say "A new car is had by him." We can say "Josefina lacked finesse," but we cannot say "Finesse was lacked." Here is a brief list of such verbs*: resemble look like equal agree with mean contain hold comprise lack suit fit become Verbals in Passive Structures Verbals or verb forms can also take on features of the passive voice. An infinitive phrase in the passive voice, for instance, can perform various functions within a sentence (just like the active forms of the infinitive). Subject: To be elected by my peers is a great honor. Object: That child really likes to be read to by her mother. Modifier: Grasso was the first woman to be elected governor in her own right. The same is true of passive gerunds. Subject: Being elected by my peers was a great thrill. Object: I really don't like being lectured to by my boss. Object of preposition: I am so tired of being lectured to by my boss. With passive participles, part of the passive construction is often omitted, the result being a simple modifying participial phrase. [Having been] designed for off-road performance, the Pathseeker does not always behave well on paved highways. Sumber : http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/passive.htm Free Template Blogger collection template Hot Deals SEO

The Relative Clause

> Relative Clause disebut juga dengan kata sifat kalimat Relative Clause akan memenuhi tiga persyaratan. > Pertama, akan berisi subjek dan kata kerja/subject dan verb.. > Kedua, ia akan mulai dengan kata ganti relative pronoun [who, whom, whose, that, or which] atau relative adverb [when, where, or why]. > Ketiga, itu akan berfungsi sebagai kata sifat/adjective, menjawab pertanyaan-pertanyaan What kind? How many? or Which one? Relative Clause akan mengikuti salah satu dari dua pola: relative pronoun or adverb + subject + verb relative pronoun as subject + verb Berikut adalah beberapa contoh: Which Francine did not accept Which = relative pronoun; Francine = subject; did accept = verb [not, an adverb, is not officially part of the verb]. Where George found Amazing Spider-Man #96 in fair condition Where = relative adverb; George = subject; found = verb. That dangled from the one clean bathroom towel That = relative pronoun functioning as subject; dangled = verb. Who continued to play video games until his eyes were blurry with fatigue Who = relative pronoun functioning as subject; played = verb. Hindari membuat sebuah fragmen kalimat/sentence fragment. Sebuah Relative Clause tidak mengekspresikan pemikiran yang lengkap, sehingga tidak dapat berdiri sendiri sebagai kalimat. Untuk menghindari menulis fragmen, Anda harus menghubungkan setiap Relative Clause terhadap klausa utama/Main Clause. Baca contoh di bawah ini. Perhatikan bahwa Relative Clause mengikuti kata yang menggambarkan. To calm his angry girlfriend, Joey offered an apology which Francine did not accept. We tried our luck at the same flea market where George found Amazing Spider-Man #96 in fair condition. Michelle screamed when she saw the spider that dangled from the one clean bathroom towel. Brian said goodnight to his roommate Justin, who continued to play video games until his eyes were blurry with fatigue. Tanda baca Relative Clause yang benar. Penekanan Relative Clause bisa rumit. Untuk setiap kalimat, Anda harus memutuskan apakah klausa relatif penting atau tidak penting dan kemudian menggunakan koma yang sesuai. Klausul penting tidak memerlukan koma. Sebuah Relative Clause ini penting ketika Anda memerlukan informasi yang disediakan. Lihat contoh ini: The children who skateboard in the street are especially noisy in the early evening. Children tidak spesifik. Untuk mengetahui mana yang kita bicarakan, kita harus memiliki informasi dalam Relative Clause. Dengan demikian, Relative Clause sangat penting dan tidak memerlukan koma. Namun, jika kita menghilangkan Children dan pilih kata benda yang lebih spesifik sebagai gantinya, Relative Clause menjadi tidak penting dan tidak memerlukan koma untuk memisahkannya dari bagian kalimat. Baca revisi: Matthew and his sister Loretta, who skateboard in the street, are especially noisy in the early evening. Free Template Blogger collection template Hot Deals SEO

ADVERBS GRAMMAR

Definition

Adverbs are words that modify

a verb (He drove slowly. — How did he drive?)
an adjective (He drove a very fast car. — How fast was his car?)
another adverb (She moved quite slowly down the aisle. — How slowly did she move?)

As we will see, adverbs often tell when, where, why, or under what conditions something happens or happened. Adverbs frequently end in -ly; however, many words and phrases not ending in -ly serve an adverbial function and an -ly ending is not a guarantee that a word is an adverb. The words lovely, lonely, motherly, friendly, neighborly, for instance, are adjectives:

That lovely woman lives in a friendly neighborhood.

If a group of words containing a subject and verb acts as an adverb (modifying the verb of a sentence), it is called an Adverb Clause:

When this class is over, we're going to the movies.

When a group of words not containing a subject and verb acts as an adverb, it is called an adverbial phrase. Prepositional phrases frequently have adverbial functions (telling place and time, modifying the verb):

He went to the movies.
She works on holidays.
They lived in Canada during the war.

And Infinitive phrases can act as adverbs (usually telling why):

She hurried to the mainland to see her brother.
The senator ran to catch the bus.

But there are other kinds of adverbial phrases:

He calls his mother as often as possible.


Click on "Lolly's Place" to read and hear Bob Dorough's "Get Your Adverbs Here" (from Scholastic Rock, 1974).
Schoolhouse Rock® and its characters and other elements are trademarks and service marks of American Broadcasting Companies, Inc. Used with permission.

Adverbs can modify adjectives, but an adjective cannot modify an adverb. Thus we would say that "the students showed a really wonderful attitude" and that "the students showed a wonderfully casual attitude" and that "my professor is really tall, but not "He ran real fast."

Like adjectives, adverbs can have comparative and superlative forms to show degree.

Walk faster if you want to keep up with me.
The student who reads fastest will finish first.

We often use more and most, less and least to show degree with adverbs:

With sneakers on, she could move more quickly among the patients.
The flowers were the most beautifully arranged creations I've ever seen.
She worked less confidently after her accident.
That was the least skillfully done performance I've seen in years.

The as — as construction can be used to create adverbs that express sameness or equality: "He can't run as fast as his sister."

A handful of adverbs have two forms, one that ends in -ly and one that doesn't. In certain cases, the two forms have different meanings:

He arrived late.
Lately, he couldn't seem to be on time for anything.

In most cases, however, the form without the -ly ending should be reserved for casual situations:

She certainly drives slow in that old Buick of hers.
He did wrong by her.
He spoke sharp, quick, and to the point.

Adverbs often function as intensifiers, conveying a greater or lesser emphasis to something. Intensifiers are said to have three different functions: they can emphasize, amplify, or downtone. Here are some examples:

Emphasizers:
I really don't believe him.
He literally wrecked his mother's car.
She simply ignored me.
They're going to be late, for sure.
Amplifiers:
The teacher completely rejected her proposal.
I absolutely refuse to attend any more faculty meetings.
They heartily endorsed the new restaurant.
I so wanted to go with them.
We know this city well.
Downtoners:
I kind of like this college.
Joe sort of felt betrayed by his sister.
His mother mildly disapproved his actions.
We can improve on this to some extent.
The boss almost quit after that.
The school was all but ruined by the storm.

Adverbs (as well as adjectives) in their various degrees can be accompanied by premodifiers:

She runs very fast.
We're going to run out of material all the faster

This issue is addressed in the section on degrees in adjectives.

For this section on intensifiers, we are indebted to A Grammar of Contemporary English by Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. Longman Group: London. 1978. pages 438 to 457. Examples our own.
Using Adverbs in a Numbered List

Within the normal flow of text, it's nearly always a bad idea to number items beyond three or four, at the most. Anything beyond that, you're better off with a vertical list that uses numbers (1, 2, 3, etc.). Also, in such a list, don't use adverbs (with an -ly ending); use instead the uninflected ordinal number (first, second, third, fourth, fifth, etc.). First (not firstly), it's unclear what the adverb is modifying. Second (not secondly), it's unnecessary. Third (not thirdly), after you get beyond "secondly," it starts to sound silly. Adverbs that number in this manner are treated as disjuncts (see below.)
Adverbs We Can Do Without

Review the section on Being Concise for some advice on adverbs that we can eliminate to the benefit of our prose: intensifiers such as very, extremely, and really that don't intensify anything and expletive constructions ("There are several books that address this issue.")
Kinds of Adverbs

Adverbs of Manner
She moved slowly and spoke quietly.

Adverbs of Place
She has lived on the island all her life.
She still lives there now.

Adverbs of Frequency
She takes the boat to the mainland every day.
She often goes by herself.

Adverbs of Time
She tries to get back before dark.
It's starting to get dark now.
She finished her tea first.
She left early.

Adverbs of Purpose
She drives her boat slowly to avoid hitting the rocks.
She shops in several stores to get the best buys.

Positions of Adverbs

One of the hallmarks of adverbs is their ability to move around in a sentence. Adverbs of manner are particularly flexible in this regard.

Solemnly the minister addressed her congregation.
The minister solemnly addressed her congregation.
The minister addressed her congregation solemnly.

The following adverbs of frequency appear in various points in these sentences:

Before the main verb: I never get up before nine o'clock.
Between the auxiliary verb and the main verb: I have rarely written to my brother without a good reason.
Before the verb used to: I always used to see him at his summer home.

Indefinite adverbs of time can appear either before the verb or between the auxiliary and the main verb:

He finally showed up for batting practice.
She has recently retired.

the relative clause

Relative clauses Relatif klausa

Kita dapat menggunakan klausa relatif untuk bergabung dengan dua kalimat bahasa Inggris, atau memberikan informasi lebih lanjut tentang sesuatu.
contoh:
I bought a new car that is very fast.

Defining and Non-defining
Sebuah klausa relatif mendefinisikan kata benda yang memberitahu kita berbicara tentang
Contoh :
I like the woman who lives next door.
(If I don’t say ‘who lives next door’, then we don’t know which woman I mean)


Defining relative clauses
Pertama, mari kita pertimbangkan ketika kata ganti relatif adalah subyek dari klausa relatif terdefinisi.

We can use 'who', 'which' or 'that'. Kita dapat menggunakan 'siapa', 'yang' atau 'itu'. We use 'who' for people and 'which' for things. Kami menggunakan 'yang' untuk 'yang' orang dan hal. We can use 'that' for people or things. Kita dapat menggunakan 'yang' untuk orang atau hal.

The relative clause can come after the subject or the object of the sentence. Klausa relatif dapat datang setelah subjek atau objek kalimat. We can't drop the relative pronoun. Kami tidak bisa drop kata ganti relatif.

For example (clause after the object of the sentence):

* I’m looking for a secretary who / that can use a computer well.
* She has a son who / that is a doctor.
* We bought a house which / that is 200 years old.
* I sent a letter which / that arrived three weeks later.

More examples (clause after the subject of the sentence):

* The people who / that live on the island are very friendly.
* The man who / that phoned is my brother.
* The camera which / that costs £100 is over there.
* The house which / that belongs to Julie is in London.